English Grammar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

English Grammar - Essay Example Through this class I have learned that no matter what I write, the piece will never reach its zenith without proper grammar. I enjoyed English class in elementary school. I don't believe that I found much inspiration in the subject because I knew it was a core class and I was expected to get the all important "A". It was not until middle school that I actually began to loose points on other tests because of poor grammar. I became aware of the importance of grammar during my first Social Studies test and lost ten points because of improper grammar. I can recall readying myself to do battle with my teacher and demanding my well earned "A" and watching my imagined victory deflate as my teacher explained to my classmate that they were lucky they did not receive a "F" because of the poor grammar on their test! Erroneously, I presumed that my grammar would improve with my widening repertoire of vocabulary. I had hoped that by writing for my school newspaper, I would be the new maven of journalistic news, not so. My grammar held me back. I found my articles being consistently edited due to my lack of grammatical skills and realized that if I did not do something about it, my grades would fall, I would be thrown off of the newspaper and fail the SAT's! I realized that any point that I tried to make in writing would be belied by horrid grammar use. It was then that I realized that grammar skills are the common denominator to all subjects. I sought tutoring in high school from my English teacher and we began from square one. Slowly but surely I gained confidence in adverbial placement. Additionally, I became determined to not rely upon the spell and grammar check feature in my computer. Obviously, I felt intimidated when I began this course. I am not a scholar, nor am I looking to be. I had expected everyone to be far more advanced than I. To prepare myself for this course, I began tutoring myself on a website called Edhelper.com. I studied acrostic poems, conjunctions, collective nouns and I began to study adjectives. Once this class began, I felt that I was starting with solid footing, but I soon came to learn that "composition" means far more than a simple name to a class. This class in English composition has taught me to compose. I have learned to take thoughts and bring them together to create a vision. As I mentioned earlier, I do not consider myself a scholar or the next Pulitzer prize winner. I do believe however, that my progress in grammar has affected my writing in a positive way not just in prose but in speech as well. I am a mature woman now. I am not a child, adolescent or young adult. My grammar usage, both written and oral gives the reader and listener respectively, their first impressions of me. I want them to be positive impressions. Grammar usage, whether we care to admit it or not, is a reflection of our intellect and our wit. This class has been the most challenging by far as applied to grammar. I am well aware of the fact that I have not mastered grammar and I am learning to proof read my work because I am a reactive writer. Nonetheless, I think this is my most successful class because I am confident in grammar usage both verbal and written. I appreciate all of the advice that I have received and the encouragement that greets me as I read my feed back

Sufficient Budget for K-12 Inner City Schools Essay Example for Free

Sufficient Budget for K-12 Inner City Schools Essay Catherine Gewertz (2008) in â€Å"Pennsylvania Lawmakers Eyeing Cost of School Finance Revamp† outlines the recent legislature actions over the education sector. A 2007 legislative costing-out study released in November reveals that, to deliver quality education, $2,500 more is needed for every child in the Keystone State. The 2008 fiscal budget amounting to $27. 2 billion provides $9. 4 billion for pre-collegiate education, 6. 1 percent more than the previous year. It also provides $75 million for 11,000 preschool students and $20 million for the expansion of full-day kindergarten programs. Other expansion measures include: providing laptops for high school students, boosting high school coursework, expanding dual-enrollment options and foundation funding. The state board of Pennsylvania is seeking to require high school students to pass three competency exams before graduating beginning 2008. Schools need financial resources in acquiring the needed school facilities and paying teachers’ salaries. Donations from other individuas may add to the resources of schools but they are not substantially enough in the long run. The struggles are even tougher for inner city schools where students fare less in terms of economic status compared to students studying in private learning institutions. For the most part, inner city schools depend on the financial aid mandated by the law. The United States Congress plays a key role in determining the portion of the fiscal budget that will go to the funding necessary to run public schools such as those situated in inner cities. With the growing number of prospective student, it is important to foresee the financial support and other resources needed to address the rise in the demand for education. More importantly, financial support is direly needed in expanding the quality of education in inner city schools so that students will be able to learn substantially instead of learning minimally due to severe limitations in education resources. For K-12 inner city schools, a lot of budget cuts in the education sector will affect our available resources. The most immediate consequence is the deterioration in teaching facilities’ number or quality. A limited funding deprives students of learning materials such as books. Another result is that K-12 schools become unable to acquire at least a decent number of computers for their students. Both books and computers greatly assist students in their learning endeavors; the inability to make use of them will only make the learning process tougher. While it may be difficult for Congress to guarantee that a computer is devoted for every student in K-12 schools, it is more disheartening if Congress still remains unable to allocate budget for at least a few computers for every K-12 school. Few available computers are better than nothing at all because students can just take their turns in using them. For K-12 school teachers, the lack of the most relevant and updated books can hamper the ease of facilitating student learning. When teachers use outmoded books because there are no other options, it becomes more difficult for them to hand-out the most accurate information possible. Teachers cannot easily create informative lesson plans suitable to their students. With books being the primary teaching material resource, outmoded books will negatively affect the content of the lesson plans that teachers are required to make. The article of Gewertz (2008) provides information on some of the recent developments in the education sector insofar as the Congressional budget allocation is concerned. The 2008 pre-collegiate education budget amounting to $9. 4 billion—6. 1 percent more from the previous allocation—may not be enough to cover all the financial needs of all K-12 schools across America. Nevertheless, the budget can fill some of the basic but urgent needs of these schools including my school. Part of the budget surplus can be used to purchase additional chairs or blackboards. The increase in the budget allocation for pre-collegiate education also translates to better quality of education for K-12 students. More relevant and up-to-date books can be purchased given the same number of students. Similarly, it also translates to more students accommodated in K-12 schools. Another benefit is the possibility of raising the compensation for teachers who are qualified for the job, thereby attracting potential teachers who can deliver quality education to students. The $20 million for the expansion of full-day kindergarten programs is a helping hand for inner city schools. The same holds true for the $75 million budget allocation for 11,000 preschool students. As for the school where I am currently teaching, the budget increase can mean more kindergarten students who will enjoy their full right to quality education. It also means that current kindergarten programs in my school will be preserved instead of being temporarily or permanently suspended. Although more students signify more work for teachers, it also means that kindergarten students will have more fellow students to interact with. Consequently, students will not only gain formal learning; they will also have social development within the premises of the school. Part of the prospects Congress looks into is the plan to provide laptops for high school students. Even though that plan requires higher funding, I think it is only proper. I personally think that students in my school will learn more if they are able to use laptops or, at the least, desktop computers as part of their academic pursuits in Information Technology. My students may find the use of modern computers with internet connection as a whole new territory. Nevertheless, it is just a small price to pay compared to the immense increase in the learning capabilities that they will have. With computers connected to the internet or school database, my students will gather more information most relevant to their academic requirements. Research will become easier as more sources of information are made available and access to them becomes faster. I think acquiring more computers for my school is a two-fold adjustment. On one hand, students will enjoy the benefits of gathering more information faster. On the other hand, our students will first have to be oriented and taught about the basic skills needed to make the most out of computers, let alone operate them. The challenge for teachers’ including myself is not only to ensure that our students are able to learn many educational things out of using computers but also to ensure that they understand the basic processes behind such use. Reference Gewertz, C. (2008). Pennsylvania Lawmakers Eyeing Cost of School Finance Revamp. Education Week, 27(19), 14.

College Admissions Essay: Not Old Enough to Drink, yet Admitted to the Bar! :: College Admissions Essays

Not Old Enough to Drink, yet Admitted to the Bar! I am twenty years old peeking out of my window as the mail truck makes a quick stop at my house. Barefoot and shivering, I sprint out to the mailbox. With trembling hands I open the envelope. I did it! I passed the BAR exam! My goal since beginning high school has been to pursue a career in law. Since then, I have been consistently taking steps toward my goal in every way possible. I have interned at the Baltimore District Attorney's office, which was one of the most unique experiences of my life. I attended a variety of legal processes, from homicide and drug-related trials to assault arraignments. Most people would prefer to be oblivious to knowledge of crimes that occur locally. I am fascinated by it. I will be responsible for prosecuting criminals. I will play my part in making my community a better place to live. The thought of being in court excites me. Unlike most people's attitude toward traffic court, I was thrilled to be attending court after receiving my first speeding ticket a few months earlier. Television shows that deal with law excite me as well. Every Sunday night at ten o'clock my family knows where to find me-glued to the television watching "The Practice" with a smile on my face. I currently work as a legal assistant at Rapaport and Skalny, a local law firm that specializes in litigation. I am learning so much about the law with each project I work on. Although the majority of the work I do there is filing and typing of documents, I remain fascinated with the entire legal system. I love the fact that the work I do contributes to lawsuits going to court and to clients paying for much needed services. As I head toward college, I continue to take steps getting closer to my main goal.

My Role As The School Librarian Essay -- eduaction

Everyday I walk into my school library with the hope of influencing a student or a teacher to read a new book, use a new search strategy, or to collaborate on a unit of study. My goals for students range from getting to know them and their interests and then guiding the student to these new sources or literature. I look upon the library as a learning lab or, as some in my profession have dubbed it, the Learning Commons. Every morning I greet anywhere from 50 to 80 students who are waiting for the first bell of the day. These students are in the library because they have made a decision that this is their place; a hangout for those students who are drawn to a vibrant environment that is teeming with learning and discussion. The Library Commons at Olathe Northwest is a natural extension of the secondary library’s traditional mission in a digital world. My library offers a wide range of elements to foster student learning in new and creative ways. My goal is that this space fits the need of every student. Students who need to complete an assigned task that calls for collaboration can meet in the library and plan, discuss and complete their assignment. At the same time other students can be searching for a great book or looking online for sports scores or prom dresses. The forty computers in the library offer access for any student who walks in the door. And just in case more computers are needed, a wireless laptop can be called into service. My school library is a vibrant place that welcomes all students, there is something for everyone and as the teacher-librarian I am proud to say that I listen to my patrons and work to achieve the goal of providing a learning space that fills the needs of all who enter. The course to ac... ... time together outside of school hours. In my role as the school librarian I have access to every student and teacher in the building. I try to reach all of these people through creative and relevant library-based programs. I want the library to invite all users through its doors. I entice the I don’t like to read with great technology and computer resources. For the students who can’t get enough of the latest Manga book I am willing to stop at the bookstore and pick up the newest entry in that series. Regarding teachers, I am all about perfecting the collaborative effort to meet student learning. I have established a climate of respect. Respect for the learner, the teacher and the content material. Students genuinely like the library and my hope is that they will continue to use libraries as adults and they will be strong advocates for schools and libraries.

assessment strategies for day to day assessments

Appraisal can be defined as utilizing assorted methods to understand with deepness and lucidity the current cognition that a student possesses, runing from a simple observation to organize a instructor ‘s subjective sentiment ( formative appraisal ) , to a formal trial or scrutiny ( summational appraisal ) . The cognition of a pupil is perpetually altering and as a consequence, instructors are able to do formative or summational opinions on pupil accomplishment by comparing of their work utilizing a progressive program of work. Assessment, formative or summational, is used to measure a student ‘s class, promotion, mark group arrangement, teacher direction and entree to the course of study. Many critics believe that one signifier of appraisal ( summational or formative ) , may be at the disbursal of the other. An statement possibly to be addressed elsewhere! For the intents of this essay, it is persevering to presume that ; ‘The two signifiers of appraisal can be reciprocally supportive- formative appraisal supports the procedure of acquisition, summational appraisal measures the consequence ‘ ( Kyriacou, 2007, p247 ) . In the undermentioned, I will research the deduction of the usage of both formative and summational appraisal and its topographic point in instruction today, the function of appraisal in my placement school and will reason with some contemplation on the benefits and cavity falls of appraisal in instruction.The intent of appraisalAppraisal can be categorised as any technique or activity used to measure the public presentation of a student against specific larning outcomes set out for them by their school. â€Å" Appraisal for Learning is the procedure of seeking and construing grounds for usage by scholars and their instructors to make up one's mind where the scholars are in their acquisition, where they need to travel and how best to acquire at that place. † A ( Assessment Reform Group, 2002 ) Appraisal in instruction has seen a immense rise in popularity since the debut of the National Curriculum in 1988 for two grounds ; foremost it is the agencies by which authoritiess are able to mensurate the educational end product of any given school against other schools locally and nationally, with the outlook of raising educational criterions, and secondly, instructors have progressively realised the value of uninterrupted appraisal for informing them of and steering them in their instruction procedure. The most often used intents for appraisal are as follows: – To supply the instructor with feedback sing pupil advancement. This enables the instructor to see the effectivity of their instruction sing the student accomplishing their acquisition results. Particular misinterpretations or jobs may be highlighted as a consequence, leting for be aftering for remedial action or revised learning methods. To supply the student with instructional feedback. This enables the student to measure their criterion of work against a given standards or expected criterion. Using elaborate feedback, students may understand the outlooks on them from any given piece of work more clearly, and usage to rectify and better their work. To actuate students. Positive feedback can efficaciously excite motive. To supply a record of advancement. Regular appraisal enables the instructor and the school to maintain a decisive record of pupil attainment over a drawn-out period of clip, enabling the instructor to do specific opinions sing the student ‘s current and future educational demands. It is peculiarly helpful in placing peculiar jobs or troubles. A student ‘s record of advancement will be used when pass oning with co-workers and informing parents. It may besides assist a instructor to reevaluate their pedagogic methods when learning similar groups in the hereafter. To supply a statement of accurate attainment. By utilizing specific attainment standards, the student ‘s degree of attainment at any given clip can be assessed. To measure student ‘s preparedness for future acquisition. Students can be assessed against their preparedness to entree new countries of acquisition, whether they have any specific acquisition troubles or if they have efficaciously covered old larning necessary for the instructor to continue with a specific subject. Lack of understanding in this case would ask further planning for revised acquisition and readying by the instructor. To supply grounds of instructor and school effectivity. The appraisal of pupil accomplishment and record of their advancement gives an indicant of the success and effectivity of the instructor and the school. Data is used in local and national statistics which may impact the school ‘s popularity or support chances. ( Q1, Q10, Q11, Q12, Q13 )Summational AppraisalSummational Assessment identifies the criterion of attainment achieved at any given point in the school twelvemonth, although normally carried out at the terminal of a class of work or terminal of the school twelvemonth. Various ways of measuring acquisition, sometimes referred to as ‘multiple response manners ‘ can be used to derive grounds of student acquisition, for illustration tick sheets and portfolios, but the most good recognized illustration of summational testing is the high-profile Standard Attainment Tests ( SATs ) taken nationally at the terminal of Key Stage 1 and 2, and used by authoritiess to measure the educational end product of single schools and published in League Tables. The consequences indicate the degree ( below, on mark or above for their age ) a kid is working at, assessed against eight National Curriculum Target Levels which enables the school ( or feeder school ) to do programs for the kid ‘s future acquisition and schools to find if they are learning efficaciously, by the comparing of their whole-school and students ‘ public presentation against national consequences. ( Q12, Q13 )Formative Appraisal‘An appraisal activity can assist larning if it provides information to be used as feedback by instructors and their students in measuring themselves and each other, to modify the instruction and acquisition activities in which they are engaged. Such assessment becomes formative appraisal when the grounds is really used to accommodate the instruction to run into learning demands ‘ . ( Black et al, 2002, p2 ) Formative Assessment has gained a high profile in recent old ages following the debut of the National Curriculum and the publication of the Assessment Reform Groups ‘ ( ARG, 2002 ) sum-up of research which formed the footing for the 10 rules for Assessment for Learning ( AfL ) ( 2002 ) . Ongoing formative appraisal relies on the informal, synergistic and qualitative measuring of the appraisal of student larning during ordinary schoolroom activities. Teachers use a scope of schemes in different contexts and for different intents, whilst concentrating on how pupils learn. This attack enables instructors to rapidly place mistakes and misconceptions and advance effectual hereafter larning for their students utilizing regular, constructive and formative written and unwritten feedback with the intent of enabling students to do good advancement. Personalised and differentiated acquisition accessed via every twenty-four hours Assessment for Learning ( AfL ) , is linked inextricably with inclusive, Quality First ( National Strategies, 2010 ) Teaching and student acquisition, ‘the adept usage of appraisal patterns which complement and ease the trademarks of effectual instruction is indispensable ‘ ( Kyriacou, 2007, p106 ) and should be an built-in portion of every lesson. The impact of congratulations and positive feedback, whilst avoiding comparing with other students, can hold far making effects on the scholar ‘s battle, enthusiasm and assurance. By clearly sharing the acquisition aims ( what is to be learned ) and the acquisition results or success standards ( what the kids will be expected to make one time they have learned it ) , the instructor and student are so able to prosecute in the procedure of appraisal, utilizing schemes the instructor deems ‘fit for intent ‘ in the context of the lesson. Through observation and listening to garner intelligence ; oppugning and whole-class duologue ; giving unwritten and written feedback and planning for group talk, AfL enables the scholar be actively engage, to understand the quality of their work and how to better their acquisition. There is besides grounds that low attainers and pupils with specific larning demands or disablements peculiarly benefit from formative appraisal. ‘Learners need information and counsel in order to be after following stairss in their acquisition. Teachers should: nail the scholar ‘s strengths and rede on how to develop them ; be clear and constructive about any failings and how they might be addressed ; supply chances for scholars to better upon their work. ( Assessment Reform Group, 2002, p. 2 ) ( Q1, Q10, Q11, Q12, Q13, Q19, Q26b )Appraisal schemes for daily appraisal during the lessonQuestioning aˆ? Asking inquiries to measure kids ‘s get downing points, in order to measure attainment degree and plan/adapt acquisition and instruction activities consequently. aˆ? Asking a scope of inquiries, from actual to higher-order ( unfastened and closed inquiries ) , leting students ‘think clip ‘ which will promote a deeper apprehension of the inquiry posed. aˆ? Using talk spouses and guaranting all are engaged in replying inquiries. Using oppugning to prosecute in single and whole-class duologue. Detecting aˆ? Watching kids at their work, listening to their treatments leting for an appraisal of their acquisition as it is go oning. aˆ? Making planned observations of peculiar kids who may be holding troubles to back up their acquisition in the lesson.21-2004 G | A © Crown right of first publication 2004 Discoursing aˆ? Brief ad-lib treatments with kids if there have been any issues during a lesson. aˆ? Holding treatments with kids to measure their apprehension and to determine grounds for any misinterpretations or misconceptions and leting issues to be resolved within the lesson. aˆ? Holding informed treatments following up earlier appraisal, in order to discourse advancement, marks and any equal or ego appraisals that have been made. Using these to let planning for the following stairss in acquisition. Analyzing aˆ? Marking and measuring written work with the kids, leting for designation of any common mistakes or misconceptions. This will besides assist steer kids sing how they can better and advancement. aˆ? Discoursing with the kids their responses to the lesson ‘s undertakings, leting for designation of ability to rectify any mistakes and misconceptions. This will besides assist to measure their accomplishment against the acquisition aims, monitor their advancement and let treatment sing how they can better and the following stairss for them in their acquisition. Checking kids ‘s apprehension aˆ? Conducting callback trials with planned or self-generated inquiries to measure instantly with the kids their cognition and velocity of callback. aˆ? Reviewing what has been taught antecedently leting for both kids and instructors to place what might necessitate alteration and to steer the lesson and future planning. ( Q1, Q12, Q22, Q25a, 25b, 25c, 25d, Q26b )Self and peer appraisalSelf and peer appraisal are a agencies of heightening formative appraisal during which single, braces or little groups of kids identify the advancement that has been made in the lesson, what they still find ambitious and how to better through be aftering their following stairss in larning. By advancing the development of independent ego and peer appraisal and giving them ownership of their advancement, pupils learn to supervise and measure their ain acquisition schemes and accomplishments. Honesty in appraisal is non seen to be an issue as some might hold presumed, ‘pupils are by and large honorable and dependable in measuring both themselves and one another ; they can even be excessively difficult on themselves ‘ . ( Black & A ; Wiliams,1998, p7 ) . Crucially, ‘pupils can measure themselves merely when they have a sufficiently clear image of the marks that their acquisition is meant to achieve ‘ ( ibid, p7 ) . Sometimes the instructor may utilize appropriate illustrations of work to exemplify specific marks. Using shared purposes and planned marks, work can be reviewed with or without the instructor ‘s engagement and consequences recorded and used to make revised marks. Using student self rating techniques such as the ‘thumbs up/thumbs down ‘ technique, instructors may rapidly determine pupil understanding at any given point in a lesson. ( Q28 )Planning, feedback and prepTeachers, working alongside their co-workers, plan a strategy of work by planing sequences of related acquisition activities which have detailed and clear aims. Using the National Strategy programme of survey, as set out in the National Curriculum enchiridion ( 1999 ) , they will take into history the age and ability scope of their category. Using their secure course of study cognition and accurately assessed cognition of their students ‘ anterior accomplishment degrees utilizing AfL, they are able to be after for individualized acquisition and inclusion in their patterned advance of learning. This allows the instructor to present a lesson during which they will supervise students, supply accurate feedback, challenge all students and assist all scholars achieve. Feedback is most effectual when it is descriptive and linked to the acquisition objectives/success standards coupled with suggested larning patterned advance paths. Well planned prep has the added advantage of consolidating and edifice on anterior acquisition and working with the support of parents or carers. ( Q11, Q19, Q22, Q25a, 25b, 25c, 25d, Q26b ) The National Curriculum, Programme of Study, Level Descriptors and Attainment TargetEach topic in the course of study, at each Key Stage, has a programme of survey as set out in the National Curriculum Handbook ( 1999 ) which outlines the topic cognition to be covered at any given clip. Each topic has 8 attainment marks level forms or Attainment Focus ( AF ) Levels as set out in the National Strategies appraisal standards grids ( 2010 ) , for each attainment mark ( 2010 ) . These become increasingly more ambitious and have an extra degree for ‘exceptional public presentation ‘ for students with outstanding ability. These are used by instructors to supply the footing for doing an accurate opinion on the student ‘s public presentation by Measuring Pupil Progress ( APP ) and compared at all times against the degrees above and below to guarantee an accurate appraisal is recorded. Each degree description describes in some item the age-related outlooks of an mean student by puting out ‘the accomplishments and understanding that students of different abilities and adulthoods are expected to hold by the terminal of each cardinal phase ‘ ( The Education Act, 1996, subdivision 353a ) . ( Q11, Q22, Q26b, Q28 )Measuring Pupil Progress ( APP )In a move off from formal testing, APP was introduced as an alternate agencies of whole-school and student appraisal through SATs trials. A structured, on-going national attack to appraisal ( where the boundaries between formative and summational appraisal can film over ) , APP equips instructors ( and learning helpers ) to track and do judgements on students ‘ advancement. Through uninterrupted appraisal utilizing AfL, the digest of a elaborate and individualized profile for each kid is built utilizing the AF Levels appraisal guideline grids. These records allow instructors to understand their students ‘ acquisition demands, and place any spreads in their instruction that may hold arisen, and so leting for future acquisition to be planned consequently which in bend will back up schools in raising criterions of accomplishment. APP is most effectual when it draws on a wide scope of grounds that shows what students can make independently and is in peculiar really effectual when measuring students with English as a 2nd linguistic communication. ( Q11, Q13, Q19, Q26b ) ,Appraisal demandsIt is a school ‘s statutory duty through APP to measure all students against 1999 Programme of Study and Attainment Targets, as stated by the Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency ( QCDA ) and adhering to the standards set out in the National Curriculum, with the intents of estimating all kids locally and nationally against the Government set established nati onal marks ( degrees and bomber degrees ) in their acquisition patterned advance through their school life. The information is collected locally and nationally to determine the overall public presentation of a school in conformity with the expected degrees of accomplishment for their age. A secure cognition of the national appraisal demands will assist instructors plan their lessons and fix scholars good for public scrutinies and makings. ( Q11 )Tracking and BenchmarkingThe school may implement its ain trailing system. Teachers sporadically review aggregations of students ‘ work, frequently in coaction with co-workers, to construct a record of their accomplishments and leting for an appraisal of the overall national course of study degree the kid is working at. Children are rated ‘low ‘ , ‘secure ‘ or high within each national course of study degree. Benchmarking is the term given to the procedure of mensurating criterions of existent public presentation against those achieved by others with loosely similar features, designation of best pattern and the chance to larn from those better executing schools can be identified, to raise the criterions of accomplishment of a school and originate more informed whole-school and student mark puting. ( Q13 )Appraisal in Berridge Junior SchoolAt the terminal of each cardinal phase, Berridge submits their teacher appraisal informations consequences of the national course of study appraisals to their Local Authority ( LA ) and to the authorities. The entry of these, including P graduated table informations via an Assessment of Reporting Arrangement ( ARA ) or a Teacher Assessment of Reporting Arrangement ( TARA ) ( QCDA 2010 ) at KS3 is a statutory demand. APP has late been introduced and rolled out across the whole school after instructor and TA preparation from February of this twelvemonth. U sing strict appraisal informations to track student advancement, and curricular marks, based on the aims in the Primary Framework for learning ( 2010 ) which are logged via the School Information Management System ( SIMS ) ( 2010 ) system, Berridge is able to place countries for whole-school betterment. An Annual Performance Review ( APR ) allows for in- depth analysis of advancement. Since take parting in the Local Authority ‘s School Improvement Partner ( SIP ) Programme ( 2007 ) the school has consolidated and enhanced their monitoring and rating. Although, due to the demographics of the school and high proportion of EAL students, course of study degrees are lower than the national norm. However the school ‘s ‘contextual value added ‘ ( CVA ) mark, which statistically assesses how effectual the school is through mensurating pupil advancement and trial and scrutiny consequences, indicates that the school is executing highly good. Introduced in 2007, the age -related course of study marks have been used to piece a school development program and the benefits are already highly clear. All students are tested and assessed, prior to aim grouping for English and Maths in KS2. Parents are informed of pupil advancement via termly parents ‘ eventides, reading journals and one-year written studies.DecisionIn decision the above treatment has demonstrated the cardinal characteristics of appraisal and reflected on the deductions of formative and summational appraisal in schools today. I have demonstrated how AfL, APP, ego and peer appraisal, planning, benchmarking, tracking and assessment demands impact on a instructor ‘s function in school and crucially her duty towards her students ‘ acquisition success through secure course of study cognition, effectual teaching method, planning and modified be aftering to run into any given success standards within the National Curriculum. For me, the strengths in assessment prevarication in schools being able to place advancement and more crucially, countries for betterment, rapidly and briefly as I have seen to great consequence in my arrangement school where the AF Levels are accessed via ‘I can ‘ statements for child user-friendliness and lucidity. AfL is seen by many as a tool for educational reform and addresses the supposed ruins of the SATs trials. Using elaborate descriptions of state of affairss or public presentation, appraisal can nevertheless be subjective, but in the custodies of an experient instructor it can be an highly valuable tool. The failings in appraisal in my sentiment prevarication steadfastly at the pess of the controversial SATs and League Tables and the force per unit area they place on schools to execute, and although my placement school boycotted the Year 6 SATs trials last twelvemonth, they opt to take ‘optional ‘ Saturday trials at the terminal of every school twelvemonth in old ages 3,4 and 5 in an effort to fix their students good for the inevitable. It could be argued that the increased burden put on regulated formalised proving within the school course of study has led to a failure to measure important larning results and led to pupils non being given the chance to pattern their higher-order thought accomplishments. Of class, the inquiry remains, in the visible radiation of recent authorities alteration, the deductions on instructors ‘ prioritisation of curricular coverage and their clip when prolonging a system which runs both SATs testing and APP at the same time.

Commanders of the Army of the Potomac essays

Commanders of the Army of the Potomac essays In his civil war book Commanders of the Army of the Potomac Warren Hassler Jr. fantastically recounts the events that transpired between 1861 to 1865 during which seven men were given the reigns of the North's Army of the Potomac and asked to lead the Union to victory. However, one of the greatest commanders in history stood in their way; Robert E. Lee, and each was pitted against this great general one by one and given the chance to make history. The first, Irvin McDowell was regarded in this book as a great soldier in his own right but a terrible leader who displayed visible gaps in his preparedness, in his tactics, and in his strategy. He was the first to take control of the northern army. Not much later towards the end of May of 1861 General Lee established a defensive hold along the small stream of Bull Run located in Manassas. During the Battle of Bull Run McDowell was crushed by Confederate generals Joseph E. Johnston and Pierre Beauregard due to weak planning and it b ecame apparent that this in fact would not be a short-lived war. Next up was the most popular and perhaps the greatest of the commanders, George B. McClellan. After the embarrassing defeats at Bull Run he masterfully regrouped and disciplined the AOP as he himself showed outstanding military presence and was constantly increasing his knowledge of offensive tactics. From spring of 1862 till July of that year General McClellan was successful in driving the Confederates out of West Virginia and he was inching toward the southern capitol of Richmond when General Jeb Stuart under Lee encircled and outmaneuvered McClellan's forces who were driven back and finally held at Malvern Hill during the Seven Days Battle. During this time period there was some shifting of control and the AOP was put into the arms of General John Pope. This book regards Pope as one of the most pathetic leaders of the Civil War as he screwed up and changed his ways during the second ...

The Story Behind Words for Hair Color

The Story Behind Words for Hair Color The Story Behind Words for Hair Color The Story Behind Words for Hair Color By Mark Nichol The conventions for referring to hair color are tousled. Why is it that we refer to someone with light-colored hair as a blonde (and, rarely, a blond) but we call someone with red hair a redhead? Why are blonde and brunette spelled two ways? Blond and its feminine form blonde, both from the Latin word blundus (â€Å"yellow†) by way of French, may have in turn come from a Frankish word that could be related to Old English blondan, â€Å"to mix,† which shares its origins with blend. Blond is usually employed as an adjective, the term as a noun for a man with blond hair, by contrast, is rare. Because blonds and blondes are more likely to be fair-skinned as well as fair-haired, the term is also associated with light complexion. The presence of both masculine and feminine forms for blond/blonde and brunet/brunette is due to their French (and ultimately Latin) roots, as it were, as opposed to the Germanic origins of black and red, the words for the other major hair colors, which have a neutral form. Normally, English might have jettisoned one gendered form for blond/blonde. However, the venerable theme in popular culture of the blonde-haired woman as more sexually attractive and available (as well as flighty, shallow, and dimwitted), as compared to females with hair of another color, has caused the noun form blonde and brunette to endure. The numerous terms for variations in blond hair, not necessarily in order of darkness, include sandy, strawberry, and dirty. Towhead (the first syllable refers to its resemblance to tow, flax or hemp fibers used for twine or yarn) describes a person with yellowish and often unruly hair. Brunet and brunette, from the gender-specific diminutives of the French brun (â€Å"brown†), mean â€Å"brown haired.† (Brun and its diminutives originally also referred to a dark complexion.) As with blond and blonde, the male form is rarely used on its own as a noun, though the masculine and feminine variations persist probably because of the same double standard in association of hair color with female sexuality and with personality characteristics as mentioned in reference to blondes above. (Dark-haired women are stereotyped as serious, sophisticated, and capable.) Words for shades of brown hair, from darkest to lightest, are brunet/brunette, chestnut, walnut (the last two as compared to colors of the respective nuts), golden, and ash. Redhead is yet another term for hair color used as a noun; in contrast to the colors mentioned above, it is not gender specific, though as blonde and brunette are much more common in usage than blond and brunet, it is more likely to refer to a woman than a man. Variations in red hair, listed in alphabetical order rather than according to depth of color, include auburn, copper, ginger, and orange. (Auburn derives ultimately from the Latin word albus, meaning â€Å"white,† but thanks to the influence of brun, the French spelling auborne changed, as did the meaning, to â€Å"reddish brown.†) The prevailing and long-standing cultural stereotype about redheads is that they are hot tempered; the hair color has also been associated with a high libido. Alone among descriptions of people with general hair tones, a black-haired person is never referred to by the word black alone. Hair-color categories are arbitrary strawberry blond is sometimes considered a type of red hair, and auburn might be classified as a type of brown hair though a system called the Fischer-Saller scale, devised for anthropological and medical classification, assigns alphabetical letters and roman numerals to various grades of hair color. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:30 Religious Terms You Should KnowDawned vs. Donnedâ€Å"Least,† â€Å"Less,† â€Å"More,† and â€Å"Most†

Barack Obama, Donald Trump and the Birther Movement

Barack Obama, Donald Trump and the Birther Movement Barack Obama’s legacy as the 44th U.S. president includes the killing of Osama bin Laden, helping the economy bounce back from the Great Recession and his controversial health care plan, but his time in office will forever be linked to the birther movement as well. Birthers not only framed Obama as an illegitimate president but also paved Donald Trump’s path to the White House. With this overview, learn the origins of the movement, how it spread, and its effect on Obama. Birtherism in Context Barack Obama was born Aug. 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii, to a native Kansan mother, Ann Dunham, and a native Kenyan father, Barack Obama Sr. But birthers contend that the president was born in Kenya, like his father. They argue that this made him ineligible to be president. Since Ann Dunham was a U.S. citizen, the birther rumors, even if true, would still be wrong about Obama’s eligibility to be president. As the Harvard Law Review explained in 2015: â€Å"All the sources routinely used to interpret the Constitution confirm that the phrase ‘natural born citizen’ has a specific meaning: namely, someone who was a U.S. citizen at birth with no need to go through a naturalization proceeding at some later time. And Congress has made equally clear from the time of the framing of the Constitution to the current day that, subject to certain residency requirements on the parents, someone born to a U.S. citizen parent generally becomes a U.S. citizen without regard to whether the birth takes place in Canada, the Canal Zone, or the continental United States.† The U.S. State Department also notes that a child born abroad to an American citizen and â€Å"one alien parent† acquires U.S. citizenship at birth. The birthers have never disputed that Ann Dunham was a U.S. citizen. Their failure to do so seriously weakens their argument, not to mention the fact that Obama has provided documentation about his birthplace, a Honolulu newspaper announced his birth just days afterward and family friends said they met him as a newborn in Hawaii. These friends include former Hawaii Gov. Neil Abercrombie. Abercrombie knew both of Barack Obamas parents well. â€Å"Of course, we had no idea at the time that the future president of the United States was that little boy, that little baby,† Abercrombie told CNN in 2015. The former governor became emotional discussing the birther accusations. â€Å"I would just like to ask people who have this political orientation towards the president, respect us here in Hawaii, respect his mother and father. Respect the people that I loved and the people that I knew and the little boy who grew up here in paradise and became president.†Ã‚   How the Birther Movement Began Although the birther rumors became extremely widespread, a lot of confusion exists about the origins of the movement. In fact, it has been linked to both Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump. But did either of these two, who became rivals during the 2016 presidential race, actually begin the birther movement? Donald Trump’s remarks about birtherism have only added to the confusion. â€Å"Hillary Clinton and her campaign in 2008 started the birther controversy,† Trump said  while campaigning for president in 2016. â€Å"I finished it.† In 2015, U.S. Sen. Ted Cruz (R-Texas) also blamed Hillary Clinton for the birther rumors. But both Politifact and Fact-check.org, reportedly the first website to acquire Obama’s birth certificate, have found no connection between the 2008 Clinton campaign and the birther rumors, even if some of her supporters latched on to the unfounded claims. Birtherism simply can’t be traced to a single source, but Politico has linked it to an anonymous chain email from 2008. The email reportedly stated: â€Å"Barack Obama’s mother was living in Kenya with his Arab-African father late in her pregnancy. She was not allowed to travel by plane then, so Barack Obama was born there and his mother then took him to Hawaii to register his birth.† Daily Beast editor John Avlon has blamed Clinton volunteer Linda Starr of Texas for spreading the email. For her part,  Clinton has adamantly denied involvement in the smear campaign. She told CNN’s Don Lemon that to blame her â€Å"is so ludicrous, Don. You know, honestly, I just believe that, first of all, it’s totally untrue, and secondly, you know, the president and I have never had any kind of confrontation like that. You know, I have been blamed for nearly everything, that was a new one to me.† While the name of the birther responsible for the viral email remains unknown, some birthers have proudly identified themselves with the movement. They include Jerome Corsi, whose 2008 book, â€Å"Obama Nation,† accused the president of maintaining dual American and Kenyan citizenship. There’s also former Pennsylvania deputy attorney general Phil Berg. â€Å"Obama carries multiple citizenships and is ineligible to run for President of the United States. United States Constitution, Article II, Section 1,† Berg said in a federal District court complaint filed on Aug. 21, 2008. Berg had spent the previous years suggesting that George W. Bush was somehow involved in the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. After his lawsuit about Obama’s birthplace came others. Alan Keyes, who ran against Obama in the 2004 Senate race and later for president, filed a suit in California concerning Obama’s eligibility to be president. California resident Orly Taitz would file more suits. New Jersey resident Leo Donofrio filed such a suit as well. The courts have ultimately  dismissed all suits involving the birther claims. How Birthers Have Affected Obama In response to the birther claims, Obama has released his birth certificate, which in Hawaii is a certificate of birth. But birthers, including Donald Trump, insisted that the certificate was invalid. Hawaii state officials have even vouched for Obama, including Dr. Chiyome Fukino, then director of the Hawai’i State Department of Health. The doctor swore in 2008 and 2009, â€Å"I... have seen the original vital records maintained on file by the Hawai’i State Department of Health verifying Barrack (sic) Hussein Obama was born in Hawai’i and is a natural-born American citizen.† Still, Donald Trump appeared on a number of television programs questioning the authenticity of Obama’s birth certificate and suggesting that no hospital records of his birth in Hawaii could be found. His wife,  Melania Trump, made such  claims on television as well. Spreading the birther claims earned Trump a following among Americans aggrieved that Obama was president. According to polls, more than a quarter of Americans believed Obama was not born in the United States because of the controversy. After years of declaring otherwise, Trump finally admitted that Obama was a U.S. citizen. While stumping for Hillary Clinton in September 2016, First Lady Michelle Obama called the birther claims â€Å"hurtful, deceitful questions, deliberately designed to undermine [Obama’s] presidency.†

Describing Arizona SB1070(2010) Base on Political Conservatives View Essay

Describing Arizona SB1070(2010) Base on Political Conservatives View - Essay Example Liberal Beliefs. n.d.). Based on many debatable facts, the conservatives hugely support SB 1070 and describe it as positive step towards the betterment of the sate. The Fountain Hills State Representative, John Kavanagh is a strong advocate of Arizona SB 1070 and explains that the illegal immigrants are a significant problem. With considerable numbers of illegal immigrants within a population of 6 million in Arizona, we also look at the children eligible for availing government services (e.g. education). Since they were born here and are more deserving for these services, it becomes increasingly assuring that illegal immigrants should be driven out (Murphy 2012). Conservative Southern part of Tucson and Cochise County Representative, Ted Vogt has also described Arizona SB 1070 as being positive step since he believes reduced spending from the Government towards illegal immigrants is really important for the economy and the SB 1070 advocates this. Citing an official Government website, he had stated that the illegal immigration has costed to be around 900 million to 2 billion. The issue of illegal immigrants sweeping majority of the workforce also sparked some reservations which led to Arizona SB 1070 being supported. Russell Pearce’s support for SB 1070 is reflected when he stated that he believed that the illegal immigrants were reducing job opportunities for legal immigrants (Murphy 2012). The conservatives are also speaking in the favour of Arizona SB 1070 because; they believe that the crime is more rampant amongst the illegal immigrants. Representative Kavanagh made substantial claims using ‘Center for Immigration Studies report’ that, 8.9% of the population constitutes of illegal immigrants and are held responsible for 21.8% of the crime taking place in Maricopa city. Based on his experience doing an internship at US attorney

Prosecutorial Misconduct Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Prosecutorial Misconduct - Research Paper Example In this respect, this becomes unacceptable by the law. Therefore, in order for the criminal justice system to be in a position to provide the mandate for which it is created, there is a need for the reformation of this problem. This will provide a solution to the issue as the prosecutors among other law enforcers will be in a position to act within their specified duties. In this sense, both the criminals and other citizens of the countries will be given the opportunity to enjoy their individual rights of justice. Within the legal profession, there are those convictions that have been made in a wrongful manner. Although most of the time these have been contributed by honest mistakes that could not have been prevented or avoided, there are those that have taken place as a result of ignorance and the lack of responsibilities by the members of the legal profession. This is a sign that in far too many cases, the same people who are entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring truth and justice since they are the law enforcement officers and mainly the prosecutors lose focus of this obligation and instead of working towards the maintenance of justice they mainly focus on securing convictions for themselves regardless of the consequences placed on the defendant. It mostly applies to the prosecutors who aim at providing evidence against the defendant despite the fact that they also possess alternative evidence to prevent the incrimination of the said defendant. This means that they may have evidenc e to incriminate a different individual hence leading to the wrongful conviction of the first defendant (Davis, 2007). It refers to the illegal action or the lack of action by the prosecutor especially in the attempt to influence the jury to convict a defendant inappropriately or to give a punishment that is harsher than it is necessary. At times, it is also known as selective prosecution. This is a problem that has currently been

Present and evaluate the possible bank reforms emerging from the US Essay

Present and evaluate the possible bank reforms emerging from the US and the UK - Essay Example Now, when the crisis is within control and the economies of the US and the UK are showing signs of nascent recovery, the cries for reforms in the banking system are emerging from the affiliated concerns and institutions. Some of the proposed reforms are a step in the right direction. Still, all that is being said and done does not portend to achieve the expected results. Causes of the Banking Crisis The occurrence of crisis like situations within the US and the UK banking system owing to the embedded systemic weaknesses has been typically shocking in the current decade. Not to mention, the cost of such scenarios have been significantly high for the affected economies. Though, the causes and reasons impacting the banking system during the 2008-2009 recession have been to some extent, region specific. Still, some salient trends can be identified, that have been common to the UK and US banking system. First and foremost, the risky banking practices and the accompanying structural weakne sses in the financial system were bound to give way to a crisis like situation at some time or other (Turner 2008). ... It was an attitude of negligence on the part of the regulatory bodies that allowed the irresponsible bankers to manipulate an environment marred by ineffective market discipline (Turner 2008). This gave way to unsound corporate governance practices on the part of the banks and the customers who approached them for seeking loans. How Banking Crisis Contributed to Recession Actually experts have been predicting the collapse of the banking system much before the things went wrong. The unrealistic and unethical credit expansion by the American and the English financial institutions was a phenomenon that had been taking place since the last couple of years (Turner 2008). The irony was that even the Central Banks in the influenced countries failed to check this artificial credit expansion. All the instruments and mechanisms that facilitated this credit expansion were predominantly pegged on the real estate market in the US (Roberts 2008). As expected, as the real estate boom in the US came to a halt, the financial instruments backing it got worthless; giving was to caustic assets and the accompanying credit crunch that hit the world economy (Roberts 2008). The following oil price volatility made the things even worse (Turner 2008). Banking Reforms in the US The US government incorporated the lessons learnt from the subprime mortgage crisis into the envisaged banking reforms. These reforms not only intended to create new regulatory bodies with more teeth, but also planned to protect the interests of the customers. These reforms provided more power to the Federal Reserve thereby enabling it to better monitor the functioning of the financial institutions, and if required to takeover over a financial institution

The Signature Murders Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Signature Murders - Coursework Example At the moment Garcia’s sister-in-law visited the apartment with her son, found what had happened and called the police. In the second murder case, 65 years old, Willie Nichols was found dead in his apartment following the insistence of his friend Deborah, who pleaded with the apartment manager to open Nichols apartment after he had failed to pick her calls a number of times. Based on the evidence collected in two crime scene, there was a possible connection that they had been committed by the same individual, who was later identified as Robert Rose (Ramsland, 2012). The investigators applied professional techniques in the case; firstly they were divided based on the divisions to ensure that the evidence collected on the scene was handled appropriately. Detective Thacker and Small from the Hollywood Homicide Detective evaluated the scene and determined that it was a burglary. The Scientific Investigative Division (SID) collected the evidence, which was given to the criminalistic team for analysis (Ramsland, 2012). To secondary scenes existed and the handling of the crime scene was relevant to the closing of the case. Forensic technologies were utilized at a wide array of the signature murders. The collected fingerprints were examined using the fingerprint classification (FPC) and the information was transmitted to the AFIS computer for evaluation and comparisons. Electrostatic detection apparatus was used to dust the particles from the offender’s footprints (Ramsland, 2012). The blood collected as evidence, which belonged to both the victim and the offender was also tested. The DNA test was done through Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and it distinguished the victims’ blood sample from that of the offender (Krimsky & Simoncelli, 2013). The rich evidence that was in the two murder cases enabled the investigators and the forensics to be conducted easily and it was admissible to the court.

Does the media distort childrens perceptions of reality or validate Research Paper

Does the media distort childrens perceptions of reality or validate them - Research Paper Example Some adverts have been successful in meeting this objective while others do not please the audience well enough to influence their decisions. However, a group of audience that may not be targeted by these adverts, but is actively involved in viewing them is underage children. Most online and TV digital advertisements are aired at convenient times when the children are watching, leading to serious implications in influencing innocent minds of the children. Therefore, the growing digital media advertising in TV and online commercials is responsible for distorting childrens minds due to the glamour and perceived reality of the virtual content portrayed in these commercials. Â   Paige (1) explains that currently, the violent and aggressive scenes, in addition to scenes portraying disrespect towards others have been the order of the day particularly in TV adverts. Introducing children to violent materials influences their perception regarding application of aggressiveness and violence; the kid perceives this as the best way to achieve a certain end as observed in these adverts. This is because; children cannot decode the messages to conceive the actual meaning being contemplated, but will take the portrayal of aggressiveness as the norm to achieve a certain need. For example, the Ford VW advert resulted in increased criticism from parents as the advert was aired too early and portrayed the chief engineer of Volkswagen embroiled in a combat with a few replicas of himself. The portrayed car parts being used as weapons passed a violent message to children; the advert was not supposed to be aired at normal times when children were watching TVs. As Haugan (23) ex plains, exposure of violent content to children leads to violent behaviors making such adverts to have bad influence on children. Super bowl snapshots when used in advertisements have been criticized for portraying the message of aggressiveness and violence to

The Signature Murders Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Signature Murders - Coursework Example At the moment Garcia’s sister-in-law visited the apartment with her son, found what had happened and called the police. In the second murder case, 65 years old, Willie Nichols was found dead in his apartment following the insistence of his friend Deborah, who pleaded with the apartment manager to open Nichols apartment after he had failed to pick her calls a number of times. Based on the evidence collected in two crime scene, there was a possible connection that they had been committed by the same individual, who was later identified as Robert Rose (Ramsland, 2012). The investigators applied professional techniques in the case; firstly they were divided based on the divisions to ensure that the evidence collected on the scene was handled appropriately. Detective Thacker and Small from the Hollywood Homicide Detective evaluated the scene and determined that it was a burglary. The Scientific Investigative Division (SID) collected the evidence, which was given to the criminalistic team for analysis (Ramsland, 2012). To secondary scenes existed and the handling of the crime scene was relevant to the closing of the case. Forensic technologies were utilized at a wide array of the signature murders. The collected fingerprints were examined using the fingerprint classification (FPC) and the information was transmitted to the AFIS computer for evaluation and comparisons. Electrostatic detection apparatus was used to dust the particles from the offender’s footprints (Ramsland, 2012). The blood collected as evidence, which belonged to both the victim and the offender was also tested. The DNA test was done through Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and it distinguished the victims’ blood sample from that of the offender (Krimsky & Simoncelli, 2013). The rich evidence that was in the two murder cases enabled the investigators and the forensics to be conducted easily and it was admissible to the court.

Political Science 120 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Political Science 120 - Essay Example Firstly, the legislature exercises checks and balances on the executive by shutting down presidential vetoes through voting against them with a two-thirds majority. The legislature checks on the executive by either approving presidential appointments or new treaties. The legislature also has the power of impeaching a sitting president out of office by passing a vote of no confidence. On the other hand, the legislature checks on the judiciary by either approving or declining appointed judges, creating lower courts or impeaching a judge out of office. Secondly, the judiciary exercises checks on the legislative branch through declaring formulated laws as unconstitutional. On the other hand, the Judiciary, through the judicial review checks on the executive by declaring some deeds by the executive as unconstitutional. Thirdly, the executive exercises checks on the judiciary by nominating the persons to be appointed in the Supreme courts and the persons to be appointed in the federal cour ts. Additionally, the executive will check on the legislature by exercising a veto power against some legislations and recalling congressional sittings. The system of checks and balances had the objective of ensuring that no single branch of government becomes powerful that the other, which would lead to oppression of the citizens and a lack of justice. The system of checks and balances was put in the constitution with the intention of seeing to it that the rule of law prevails (Brannen & Lawrence, 2005). Question # 2 Cooperative Federalism Through Cooperative Federalism, the responsibility of governing people in a society is shared by the state and the national government. The different levels of government consult on which level is best suited on taking a particular responsibility in relation to governing and policy formulation. Cooperative federalism focuses on the idea that the overall governance of a nation is a partnership between the state and the national government. In esse nce, cooperative governance entails different levels of government exercising power in the same area (Hueglin & Fenna, 2006). Federalism works in a manner that the state governments are limited in terms of the powers that they can exercise in their states. This is contrary to the power that the national government can exercise. For instance, the state government cannot coin out currency, declare war, formulate immigration laws or raise an army. However, the national government has the power to coin out currency, declare war, formulate immigration laws and raise an army or a navy (Hueglin & Fenna, 2006). Cooperative federalism is different from dual federalism in that, in dual federalism the state and national governments are sovereign and equal partners. In dual federalism, a lot of power is directed to the states while the national government’s power is only spelt by the constitution. In cooperative federalism, the national government, through the constitution under article I in section 8 can exercise powers, which the state government cannot. The above fact was not possible under dual federalism (Hueglin & Fenna, 2006). Cooperative federalism came as a result of Congress’s intention of regulating trade and commerce in the whole of the United States. Another reason that led to cooperative federalism is the idea of eliminating the aspect of competition between the state governm

English Legal System Essay Example for Free

English Legal System Essay 1. The Sources of English Law What we are concerned about in this regard is the JUSTIFICATION for the decisions reached by our various courts of law, and the principles of law applied by lawyers in relation to commercial and business practices. Laws are created by lawyers, commercial and business law is created by commercial lawyers, but it is business men and women who must abide by, apply and work within it. There are a number of sources of English law, and this is markedly different from some other jurisdictions, eg China and parts of continental Europe. In the UK, the legal system is a COMMON LAW LEGAL SYSTEM, as opposed to a CIVIL LAW SYSTEM. It is perhaps easier to define a civil law system first, in that a civil law system is a written and accessible set of laws that cover all aspects of activity through codified legal principles and rules. These codified rules are usually created through the political apparatus, the court system is usually inquisitorial, not bound by precedent, and the law is administered by a specially trained judiciary with a limited authority. The judicial role is to INTERPRET the law. Roman law was one of the first major civil law systems, and the Germanic codes that had developed from the 6th and 7th centuries in Germany were adopted by developing Asian nations from the 19th century onwards. The German Civil Code became the basis for the legal systems of countries such as Japan and South Korea, and in China, the German Civil Code was introduced in the later years of the Qing Dynasty and formed the basis of the law of the Republic of China. So in China, in simplistic terms, the law is created by the Legislative Branch of government, the National Peoples Congress and is applied and interpreted by the Judicial Branch of government, the Supreme Peoples Court being at the top of this hierarchy, and Basic Peoples Court at the bottom. In the Common Law legal system of the UK there are a number of primary sources: (i) Common Law (ii) Statute (iii) European Legislation (i)Common Law Sometimes also referred to as CASE LAW, this is judge-made law, a body of legal principles that are made by our judges on a case by case basis. This practice has developed over the centuries in England from the time of the Norman Conquest (1066). Local customary law was gradually brought together as the government and administration of the various parts of England and Wales was centralised in London in one parliament and one supreme court. Knights originally, then judges would travel around the country from London, hearing cases and recording their decisions so establishing a set of PRECEDENTS and a unified system of law. This became known as the COMMON LAW – a law that was common to all, applied to all men in all parts of the country. An area of law that still to this day remains based in principles of common law is the law of contract, and this will be one area of law we will be considering in our studies this semester. While there is some statute law in the law of contract, most of the fundamental principles of how we create interpret and administer contracts at law in England, are to be found in common law, judge-made case law. For example, it is a rule in the law of contract that, in general, only the parties to a contract can sue for breach of contract. A third party, C, cannot sue for a breach of a contract made between A and B. This is known as the COMMON LAW DOCTRINE OF PRIVITY, and as discussed in the case of Tweddle v Atkinson (1861). In this case, the father of the bride and the bridegroom entered into an agreement to pay the groom certain sums when he had married the daughter. On the marriage, one father refused to pay the groom and the court decided that the groom could not sue for breach of contract because he was not a party to the contract even though he was obviously mentioned in it and had benefits under it. (ii)Statute Law or Legislation As judges are making laws in the court room, so our Parliament makes law by way of statute, or Act of Parliament. More and more our law is developed in this codified form, particularly in areas where the principles are complicated and complex eg company law, social security law and tax law. As these fields developed rapidly, it was not feasible to wait for a particular point to be raised by parties to an action in a courtroom, and for clarity and certainty, particularly in the commercial field, rules needed to be established and applied to keep pace with developments. So, for example, as business resorted more and more to conducting commercial ventures through the corporation, it became clear that we needed regulation in codified form to govern the incorporation and ongoing operations of that entity. Hence, most of our company law is contained in statutory form, under the Companies Act 2006. It is the biggest piece of legislation ever passed by a UK parliament and has over 1300 sections. It took 10 years to draft and introduce, and only fully came into force in 2009. Cases on the points of law in the Act are only just now starting to take place in the companies courts. So, in semester 2, in the module Commercial Law, we will be concentrating our focus on statute law, unlike this semesters focus on the common law, as it contains the fundamentals of the law relating to contracts in England. Finally, it should be noted here that if there is a conflict between the common law and statute law, STATUTE WILL PREVAIL. (iii) European law On Britain’s entry into the European Community in 1972, our parliament enacted a piece of legislation called the European Communities Act 1972, under which Britain made an undertaking to be bound by COMMUNITY LAW, that is, laws made by the European Parliament. Section 3 of the ECA 1972 binds our courts to accept the supremacy of community law. It is not however strictly correct to say that EU law automatically applies in the UK and that domestic UK law is therefore redundant. Rather, if there is conflict between the two, in a given area, then EU law is paramount in this instance. Where there is a gap in the UK law, and there is EU law on that point, then again, EU law will apply, to create a certain right or an obligation. A very significant case on the issue of EU supremacy was Factorame Ltd v Secretary of State for Transport (No 2) [1991]. In this case, the EU had made laws to govern the accessibility of all member states of the EU to fish each others waters, setting limits and restrictions on this, but nevertheless granting equal rights to all members to fish each others waters. To fish in UK waters and in this manner, a ship had to be registered under the merchant shipping regulations of the state in whose waters it intends to fish. In response to this, the UK passed an Act of Parliament which required that registration would only be granted if there was a genuine and substantial connection with the UK. As a result of this, a Spanish vessel, the Factorame, could not gain the necessary registration to fish in British waters, and legally challenged the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act 1988 on the basis that it was incompatible with EU law, and that it had been discriminated against on the grounds of nationality. After protracted court battles, eventually, our highest court at the time, the House of Lords, ruled that indeed that these provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act should be suspended (and in due course amended) as it was incompatible with the EU provisions. In the UK, a DUALIST approach is taken which means that certain types of EU law do not generally become part of the UK law, until they have been brought into effect through the passing of a piece of UK legislation, through the British parliament. This type of law is often brought into effect as an EU DIRECTIVE. Some types of EU law do however have direct effect and do not need domestic national enactment. These are commonly referred to as EU REGULATIONS, made by the EU Commission and the Council of Ministers. Finally, another important provision of EU law in the UK, is based in the European Convention on Human Rights. The UK passed an Act of Parliament, the Human Rights Act 1988, which allows UK courts to declare a provision of statutory law incompatible, if it violates the Convention on Human Rights. 2. The Courts and the Doctrine of Precedent (i)The Courts Today A basic distinction must be made between the CRIMINAL LAW, and the CIVIL LAW. The criminal law is accusatorial, and is applied through the trial mechanism, between the community, here in the UK this is the Queen, and the person accused of the crime, the accused. The case is brought on behalf of the Queen, as the representative of the community, and so this party is referred to as â€Å"R†, and the other party is referred to by name. So for example a case will be cited as R v Brown, and will be followed by the date in brackets (1993). There is also then a citation as to where and in what law report the case can be found. The civil law is concerned with disputes between individuals. The claimant commences proceedings against another, the defendant, who defends the claim, and may also counter-claim against the claimant. So, for example, as we will see, a civil claim may be brought for a breach of contract between the parties to that contract. An example would be the case of Mitchell Ltd v George Finney Lock Seeds Ltd (1983). We will discuss the facts. We will now look in brief at the court systems with reference to the text, Smith and Keenan, at pages 19 and 20. The Courts today have the Supreme Court at the top of the hierarchy, which under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, creates a new independent Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. Previously, the highest court in the legal hierarchy was the House of Lords, and it enjoyed the jurisdiction as the final court of appellate jurisdiction But again we must remember that in relation to a point in European law, the European Court of Justice has supremacy, and any court may, and in the case of the Supreme Court, must, seek a preliminary ruling on a relevant point of European law from the ECJ. We should also mention the European Court of Human Rights, which sits in Strasbourg. It was set up by the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, to ensure that those of the member states that choose to engage, observe the terms of their engagement. The UK is one of the states which have accepted the courts jurisdiction. The ECHR can now be approached directly by the person alleging a human rights violation, by bringing an action against the state responsible. So, for example in the case of Lustig-Prean and Beckett v United Kingdom (1999), the court decided that certain members of the UK armed forces who were discharged because of their homosexuality had been subjected to a violation of their human rights under the European Convention. The decision of the court meant that the armed forces had to revise their policy on homosexuality, but the case has no binding effect on private business, because it only relates to the state, in this case the UK.

Languages Are Constantly Changing English Language Essay

Languages Are Constantly Changing English Language Essay Languages are changing as the world is constantly changing. After the Second World War, English neologisms emerged in a remarkable way. New vocabulary came into existence due to new technologies and new discoveries such as ; computing, internet , cell phones and the like. Peoples daily activities like dancing, looking and many others, renewed their popularity giving birth to new lexicon. In deed, new words are invented rapidly and are developed quickly thanks to mass communication. They appear and fall into disuse when they have served their momentary purpose ( Bernhart 54).Only a few of them will get recorded in glossaries of neologisms of general dictionaries. The matter of neologism becomes a new hot spot of research owing to its practical and prevailing use in reality. The study of neologisms evoked a whole cluster of questions: -What are the reasons beyond the rise of new lexicon? -Why are some new words just a flash in a pan? -Why are other words successful? -What are the qualities that make a word successful? -Are Neologisms markers of changes in societies? Chapter 01:Literature Review 1.Definition of a Neologism The term neologism originates from Greek: neos means new, logos means word, i. e. a neologism is literally a new word. Neologism is the creation of a new lexical item as a response to changed circumstances in the external world, which achieves some currency within a speech community(qtd. in Chrystal 1992: 264) at a particular time. In linguistics, a neologism is a recently-coined word, or the act of inventing a word or phrase. Additionally it can imply the use of old words in a new sense (i.e., giving new meanings to existing words or phrases). Neologisms are especially useful in identifying new inventions, new phenomena, or old ideas which have taken on a new cultural context. The word neologism was coined around 1800 and was, at that time, a neologism itself. A person who develops a neologism is sometimes called a neologist; neology is the act of introducing a new word into a language. l. 2. Background of English Neologisms The famous American new word expert John Algeo wrote in the preface of his book Fifty Years Among the New Words, Although the dictionary of new word is warmly welcomed by readers only in recent years, actually the compiling of English dictionary began with the collection of new word ever since 1604. The early English dictionaries like Table Alphabeticall (1604, Robert Cawdrey), English Expositor (1616, John Bullokar), and The English Dictionarie (1623, Henry Cockeram) all embodied some hard words, which were absolutely new words to people in those days. Thus, those dictionaries somehow held the characteristics of neologism dictionary. However, the scientific and systematic study of neologism began at 200 years later, the 20th century. In 1902, Leon Mead published a book named Word-Coinage, being an Inquiry into Recent Neologisms, also a Brief Study of Literary Style, Slang, and Provincialisms, which said to be the first book studying neologism in the 20th. Although it was not a neologism dictionary, it contained some articles about new words. Whats more, Mead put forward the idea of making research on new words for the first time in the history. He also provided lots of examples of new words created by some American writers at that time. In 1920, C.Alphonso Smith, the dean of the English department of American Navy Institute wrote a book entitled New Words Self-defined, in which 420 new words were illustrated by examples. This had proved to be a big progress in the research on the neologisms. From 1937 to 1940, the famous American scholar Dwight Bolinger first applied newspapers and magazines to introduce new word. He created a column, The Living Language, in the newspaper, Words. In 1943, the column was brought into American speech and the title was changed into Among the New Words. Then, in the next year,Professor I. Willis Russell took the place of Bolinger and became the chief-editor of the column. He wrote articles entitled Words and Meanings, New, to introduce new words and their new meanings. War is said to be the major cradle for the born of new words. Majorie Taylor, a librarian in New York, collected numerous neologisms created during the World War II. In 1944, Taylor compiled a word-list, The Language of World War II: Abbreviation, captions, Quotations, Slogans, Titles and Other Terms and Phrases, in which every new word was explained. Similarly, Clarence Barnhart published his Dictionary of U.S. Army Terms. At that time, some academic magazines also published articles to introduce new words. Many neologism dictionaries in the 1950s are very popular, especially the Dictionary of New Words in English compiled by Paul Charles Berg in 1953 and The Dictionary of New Words by Mary Reifer in 1955. During 1950s, Mr. Paul Charles Berg did a lot of job to collect new words about the war, which brought us his Dictionary of New Words in English in 1953. After the World War II, science and technology development had greatly influenced the society. Subsequently, a lot of scientific and technical words were flooding into the language field. A lot of neologism dictionaries about words in those fields were published. Two of them are mostly welcomed: An Explaining and Pronouncing Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Words by W. E. Flood Michael West and Words of Sciences and the History Blind Them by Isaac Asimov. From 1970s on, the study of English neologism drew great attention from western scholars, many of them established special column to introduce new words in English, such as William Safire who was well known for his On Language in New York Times weekly and Anne H. Soukhanow who was the chief-editor of Word Watch. In Safires column, he provided a considerably clear explanation of new words by citing typical examples, exploring their origins and performing their current usage. Besides, the American Dialect Association Dispatches introduced some new words yearly to the public. For instance, in 1994, information superhighway was rewarded as the newest word; cybersex was the most surprising word and mosaic culture the most unnecessary word. The digital revolution in 1990s is the radical reshaping and restructuring of social patterns. Because of the wild spread of internet, America is speaking a whole new language, said Shawn Holley in his The New Word Revolution. Lots of neologisms that have a historical significance by reason of the influence they exerted on the language field are brought into existence. According to the statistics, more than 20 neologism dictionaries have been compiled, among which some put emphasis on the academic field and some are distinctive by their popularity. Oxford English Dictionary, Websters Third New International Dictionary and Barhart Dictionary of New English are the ones with the highest academic value. New words are numerous. Sometimes it seems as if a new word has about as much chance of developing into a permanent addition to our vocabulary. Only few of them will remain as serious candidates for the dictionary. Books especially about new words are abundant. However, only a few scholars have ventured to propose factors that make for the success of new words. One is Goran Kjellmer, whose article Potential Words in the journal Word for August 2000 also reviews previous proposals. The other is the executive secretary of American Dialect Society, Allan Metcalf who proposed the FUDGE scale. The two reached different conclusions. Along with books and periodicals, there is the Internet. In particular, it makes my extensive searches for examples of how words are actually used today possible. Here the author has searched thousands of pages indexed by Google.com countless times to find current uses of words under discussion. A jump of several decades has showed us more researches on the neologisms. Language reflects our life, and the research on the neologisms has never been stopped. By collecting new words or phrases occurring in languages, the previous researches have provided precious materials for the further exploration in this field. Therefore, a careful look at the research background of neologisms carries an essential academic significance. In china, the study of neologism began from 1980s. Most of the specific works and papers are mere introduction of theories from abroad lacking of much original study. To keep up with the latest English vocabulary is really difficult, thus a thorough and systematic analysis about English new words is of practical significance both in learning and teaching of English as a foreign language. Chapter 02: Factors for the Rise of English Neologisms It is not language change itself that has occupied the attention of historical linguists for the past decades, but the causes and the processes of change. Early researchers, such as Saussure (1922) or Bloomfield (1933), for instance, maintained that the causes of linguistic change cannot be established despite numerous attempts at feasible explanations (Wardhaugh,1990:187). The majority of the early researchers have maintained also that the actual processes of change cannot be observed that what one can observe and perhaps analyses are the consequences of change. The findings of later research, however, envisage the process of change as an initial fluctuation between the new and the old, with the completion of the process occurring when the new replaces the old (Fromkin et al.,1996:295). In other words, if the new form, be it phonological, morpho-syntactic, lexical or semantic, spreads the change is in progress, if it eventually replaces the old form, the change has become a fait ac compli it has gone to completion(Holmes,1992:212). In regard to the causes of change, although the reasons for an aspect of a language undergoing change at a particular point in time still remain unclear, a number of theories have been proposed, depending on the orientation of individual researchers. For instance, Mcmahon M.S (1994: 179-182) discussing causes of semantic change, delineates the following: Linguistic causes Historical causes (subdivided into ideas and scientific concepts) Social causes Psychological causes (subdivided into emotive factors and taboo) Foreign influence The need for a new name Quite a lot of reasons are responsible for the creating of English neologisms. Any new thing or new concept, which takes place in our society, may provide a foundation for the creating of the new words. In the following, four of the major reasons will be emphasized: 1) the rise of new concepts and new ideas in social culture; 2) new discoveries in science and technology; 3) the manufacture of new products in economy, and 4) the events in the field of politics. Accompanied by a series of neologisms, we can have a clearer understanding of the current English neologisms. 2.1. Sociolcultural Changes: 2.1.1. New Concepts and ideas in Social Culture. The improving living condition and the enhancing cultural standard have formed a solid basis on which a large number of new things find their occurrence. It is not necessary to demonstrate that with the development of social culture, new concepts and ideas are introduced into us constantly. Since there are many more concepts than there are existing words, there will always be new words created. Changes in social outlook and manners of behavior call for new terms such as beatnik, peacenik, and hippie. Even new culinary arrangements demand new labels and in English they have some forth in the form of cheeseburger, chiliburger, mushroomburger, etc. (Anderson, 1973) Brian Foster presents us a striking example of how fast English vocabulary changes. In the year 1914, a young girl named Monica Baldwin entered a convent, remaining secluded there until 1941. When she returned to the outer world, she found herself in a totally different world: the conditions of everyday life altered by technical developments and social changes were beyond recognition. Whats more puzzling to her was the language people speaking. During a railway journey, the term luggage in advance meant nothing to her. Reading the daily newspapers made her feel idiotic in the extreme, because words like jazz, Gin, Hollywood, Cool, noshing and Isolationism were completely incomprehensible to her. Not to mention how bewildered she was at hearing friends say, Its your funeral or believe it or not. (Brian Foster, 1981) Lets look at another example moonlighting. It was anything but new to the vocabulary, and it gained a brand new meaning in 1957 as the verb to moonlight and its related noun, moonlighting. Time magazine, beamed moonlighting at its readers in its issue of July 22nd, 1957. According to Time, it was in fact not just a new name, but a new trend and a new concern. MOON-LIGHTING, proclaimed the headline: A Problem Born of Prosperity. As a noun, moonlight goes back with the moon itself to the beginning of the English language and even earlier to the Germanic and Indo-European ancestors of English. Presumably ever since humans could speak, they have talked about the light of the moon. As a verb, to moonlight is more recent, but it still goes back to the nineteenth century. From the start it has meant doing something by the light of the moon, but at first this was something that could get one arrested. In the nineteenth century, moonlight was a slang term for the activity of burglars, who benefited from moonlight at their work. In the twentieth century, it was also used for herding cattle and hunting deer by moonlight. Whether it was the illegal work that in 1957 caused the transmutation of moonlight into a standard term for legal work, or whether this new meaning was independently derived from the original moonlight, nobody knows. And it doesnt matter much. Either way, moonlight meaning the light of the moon easily took on its second meaning of to work a second job, and Americans have been moonlighting ever since. This second meaning seems likely to stay in the vocabulary, as long as people continue to hold down second jobs. 2.1.2.Disguising Language, Misnomers While taboo words are words that have been banned by the speech community, misnomers are words that individuals have decided to coin in order to deceive the hearer by disguising unpleasant concepts. Examples: E. friendly fire instead of bombardment by own troops. 2.1.3.Prestige, Fashion Lexical change may be based on the prestige of another language or another variety of the same language, certain fashionable word-formation patterns or certain fashionable semasiological centers of expansion. The kernel of this force is mostly found outside of language. It is often the prestige of a culture, the superiority of a group or politics which cause speakers to adopt linguistic elements (words, morphemes, morphs, sounds) from the prestigious groups speech. Example: English, for instance, borrowed heavily from French during the ME. period because the upper social classes were made up of French people: garment, flower, rose, face, prince, hour, question, dance, fork, royal, loyal, fine, zero are all Gallicisms. Today, English is now the most prestigious language for many parts of the world. 2.1.4.Social, or Demographic, Reasons By social, or demographic, reasons we shall refer to the contact between different social groups. This contact may easily, and rather subconsciously, trigger off lexical change- the more intensive the social contact is, the more intensive the linguistic exchange. Example: In the history of the English language, the two prominent instances of exchanges between two social groups were the one with the Vikings in the 8th to 11th centuries and the one with the French in the 11th to 15th centuries. The force of direct contact between different speech communities must not be mixed up with the prestige force, where no direct contact with the other speech community is necessary. Thus, we can say that the early French loans (from Northern French) rather go back to the everyday contact with the English population and the French soldiers, not so early French loans (from Parisian French) go back to the prestige of the French aristocracy, the French loans in the official bilingual phase of Englands history may either go back to prestige or to the social contact or to both. Examples: The inherited ey is replaced by Scandinavian egg, the inherited nimen is replaced by Scandinavian taken except for theform benumb, throwen is supplemented by Scandinavian casten; early French loans are army, carpenter, catch. 2.1.5.Culture-Induced Salience of a Concept (Cultural Salience) Sometimes concepts are not salient to humans because of gerenal human nature, but because of the concepts cultural values. Their salience can change with the change of culture. Example: The increased importance of arts and fashion has affected the lexical treatment of the conceptual field of colors: from a vague differentiation between dark blue and light blue to a neat distinction between cobalt blue, royal blue, indigo etc. (such neat detailed differentiations often originate in expert slang and then penetrate the language of the general speech community). Conceptual fields which have gained salience through cultural importance may very well serve as designations in other conceptual field in the form of metaphors. Example: In the US, a lot of metaphors in general language have been taken from the field of baseball, e.g. to be off base to be completely wrong, to hit a home run to be highly successful and from the field of entrepreneurship. 2.1.6.Word-Play The category of word play includes humor, irony and puns. Although word-play often goes hand in hand with other factors (such as taboo, prestige or anthropological salience), it can also trigger lexical change on its own. Example: ModE. perfect lady prostitute, to take French leave to leave secretly (without paying), to cool look ( 2.2 New discoveries and Products In Science and Technology Suppose youre advancing the cause of science rather than pitching a product, and you have something new to report-a new element, a new compound, or a new species. How does it get a name? No new science is possible without neologisms, new words or new interpretations of old words to describe and explain reality in new ways. How could Aristotle have developed the logic of syllogisms or Newton thetheory of dynamics without new vocabularies and definitions? They were neologists, and everybody wanting to contribute new knowledge must be. For new knowledge there is no way around the creation of new terms and concepts. For new objects and new inventions, scientific discoveries, technical theories, etc, the new name is usually the work of one man or of a very few. To reject neologisms, often despicably, is to reject scientific development. No sign of scientific conservatism is so telling as the rejection of all but the established concepts of a school of thought. Neologisms are, however, relative to the terminological paradigm actually dominating a field of knowledge. It may be a radical renewal to introduce terms from a tradition believed to be outmoded. Nowadays the idea of the technical highway has been very familiar to people. Development in the science and technology has brought tremendous energy to the improvement of our civilization. And these achievements also find their reflections in language. Technical advancements in a society demand new designator terms, many of which can be found in linguistics such as hypercorrection, phoneme, allomorph, etc. The progress of science and technology gives occasion for the large majority of new words; for a new thing we must have a new name; hence, for instance, motor, argon, and appendicitis. It is interesting to see that the last word did not exist, or was at least too obscure to be recorded, when the Oxford Dictionary began to come out in 1888; but we cannot do without it now. Take the word software for example, that computer term was invented by John W. Tukey, a statistician at Princeton University. As long ago as 1958, he used the word in the American Mathematical Monthly. Today the software comprising the carefully planned interpretive routines, compilers, and other aspects of automotive programming are at least as important to the modern electronic calculator as its hardware of tubes, transistors, wires, tapes and the like. Tukey was already known for inventing another now- famous computer term. In 1946 he used the little word bit as the designation for a unit of information, a binary digit with value 0 or 1. That led a decade later to bytes (groups of bits, now always eight, a term invented by Werner Buchholz at IBM) and to todays kilo-, mega; and tera-bytes of computer storage and information. 2.3 The Manufacture of New Products in Economy Economic development is the mainstream of our era. The improvement of language, to a certain extent, benefits a lot from the new phenomenon that occurs in the economic field. In this competitive world, any innovation or fresh things taking place in economy will soon find their voice in the language. If theres anything a new product needs, its a brand name. To the extent that the product succeeds, the name will too. Its a sure thing, the one way to guarantee that a new term will be a success: spend mighty amounts of money on marketing persuade people to buy and keep on buying a product, and they will call it by the name you give it. When you want a product, a company would like you to think of its brand name. The Coca-Cola Company wants people to think of a Coke when they want a soft drink. But if the marketing is successful enough and the name Coke is embedded in peoples vocabulary, people will ask for a Coke and be satisfied if they get a Pepsi. In fact, in the southeastern United States, home of Coca-Cola, Coke is such a successful brand that many people there (and in the rest of the country) refer to any soft drink as a coke. Some brand names even joined the pack of the general vocabulary. Here are some of them: à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Aspirin: a name for acetylsalicylic acid, trademarked by the Bayer Company of Germany at the start of the twentieth century. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Elevator and escalator: both originally trademarks of the Otis Elevator Company. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Zipper: a name given to a separable fastener by the B.F. Goodrich Company many years after it was invented. The new name helped the zipper attain popularity in the 1930s. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Loafer: for a moccasin-like shoe. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Cellophane: for a transparent wrap made of cellulose. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Granola: a trademark registered in 1886 by W K. Kellogg, now used for a natural kind of breakfast cereal. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ping-pong: for table tennis, a trademark registered by Parker Brothers in 1901. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Xerox: for photocopier. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Kleenex: for facial tissue. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Band-Aid: for adhesive bandage. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Tupperware: for storage container. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Scotch tape: for transparent adhesive tape. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Jazzercise: for exercise to jazz music. 2.4. The Events in the Field of Politics. The forming of English new words is sometimes considered as the result of the political changes. Language reflects the society, as it has always been. Politics is an essential part of the development of the world; therefore, it can easily find its relative neologisms in the language field. For instance, when Mr. Bill Clinton was elected as the president of the US., his name has been associated with many political words. His policy is Clintonian, he is carrying out the Clintionism, his economics policy is Clintonomics, and his supporters were called Clintonites, he ultimately wanted to realize his Clintonization. Another widespread usage of affixes is -gate, which came from the historical Watergate event. People took use of Irangate to disclose the involvement of some American government office workers in U.S. selling arms to Iran. Camillagate was used to mean the love affair of British Prince Charles and his lover Camilla Parker. Nannygate was pointed to the illegal hire of baby-sitter or the hire of illegal immigrants. Another striking example, On September 11, 2001, the peace of a sunny late-summer morning was shattered by the impact of four hijacked airplanes on the World Trade Center towers, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania. There were more direct casualties in these disasters than on any previous day in American history, and soon the entire country felt the impact of damaged or destroyed lives, businesses, and sense of security. Out of the ashes came patriotism, resolve, and unity. And out of the ashes came new words, too, to describe new situations never before imagined. The events stir memories of Pearl Harbor and Oklahoma City, and we refer to other memorable occasions by their locations Lexington and Concord, Gettysburg, Little Big Horn, and Wounded Knee but in this case the name of place wont work. Its not just because several places were involved, but also because the places are too famous. New York City and Washington, DC, have too many other connotations, so do the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. For lack of a suitable designation deriving from place, we have used the date as a reference point: September 11. That does have a well-known precedent. One other event in American history is referred to by its date: July 4 or the Fourth of July, the date in 1776 when the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in Philadelphia. In addition to the spelled-out month and day, the numerals 9/11 or 9-11 have been used. Never before has such a historic event been so labeled, but because of the striking coincidence that 911 is the telephone number to call for help in an emergency, that numerical designation has been a success. Headline writers like the concision of this expression, just three numerals to take in all the events of that day. So far, the events of that day have resulted in just one new term: ground zero, for the place of impact, the center of destruction in New York City where the World Trade Towers once stood. That phrase has succeeded because it is not really new; its an old term for the location on the ground directly under a vast atomic explosion, corresponding to air zero, the location in the air above the ground where the bomb goes off. Ground zero had been gathering dust on the shelf in recent years because of a fortunate lack of atomic explosions. No one knows who first said ground zero in reference to the site where the World Trade Towers were attacked and collapsed, but the term immediately caught on because of its familiarity and emotional power. Chapter 03:Success of English Neologisms 3.1. How are Neologisms Found? The authority for a word in fact, the authority for a language rests with the users of the language. Thus, the process of adding new words to the dictio ­nary begins with a systematic examination of almost everything printed and said in English. As far as Among the New Words is concerned, this important task citation with source information (qtd. in Algeo 1991a: 3) is fulfilled by active members of the Words Committee, who contribute the words they regard as new in any material they read or listen to (Algeo 1991a: 3). The cited word must contain the name of the publication, the day, and the page number. Concerning oral citations, the source information must consist of the day the sentence was heard and where and when one came across it (Algeo 1991a: 3). The following list shows that usually American dictionaries are consulted (with the exceptions of two British dictionaries: the OED and Websters Third) to check the newness of each contribution (Algeo 1991a: 2): Random House Websters College Dictionary, 1991. Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., 1989. World Book Dictionary, 1989 Websters New World Dictionary, 3d College ed., 1988. Random House Dictionary, 2d ed. Unabridged, 1987. Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1983. Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1961. Only if the new word is assumed to be British, are additional British dictionaries referred to. To make sure that a neologism has not been lexicalized yet, the following dictionaries of neologisms are used: Third Barnhart Dictionary of New English. 1990. Chambers English Dictionary, 1988. Collins Concise Dictionary, 2d ed., 1988. Collins Dictionary, 2d ed., 1986. Longman Dictionary, 1984. Readers Digest Great Illustrated Dictionary, 1984. If a word entered one of these dictionaries, then it is usually not recorded in Among the New Words (Algeo 91a: 2). Since Among the New Words receives more citations than there is space to print, a selection has to be made. The criteria on what and when to enter a word is up to the lexicographer. As I said, lexicographers have different opinions (Algeo 1991b: 75) and therefore it is hard to give exact rules. However, two principles can be set up: the absolutely newness of a word and the reflection of the zeitgeist. 3.2. Reasons of Success of Neologisms 3.2.1 The frequency of occurrences The most important factor is that a word appears in as many different sources as possible. The more sources (newspapers, magazines, books etc.) a word appears in, the more obvious is the frequency and range of the term (Sheidlower 33). Besides, the more a word is cited the more popular it is; and consequently the more likely it is to be included in a dictionary. 3.2.2 Range among sources It is of interest to know the range of the new word because if a word is only common in a special field, it is not a candidate for a general dictionary but rather for a technical one. Therefore, a general dictionary excludes technical terms or terms well known in a certain field because they are not of general interest. However, there are exceptions: the term intellectual property  [1]  was limited to certain fields. Today, its use is widespread because new technologies are invented; thus the intellectual property has to be preserved (Sheidlower 33). 3.2.3 Durability The use of a term over a certain time gives information on its durability. Nevertheless, this criterion must not be overrated. It is true that a word that appears over a certain time span, but otherwise does not constitute sufficient evidence (qtd. in Barnhart 59) probably will not be included; however, a brandnew word with sufficient evidence (frequency of occurrences, range among sources, cruciality in a given field) is likely to enter a dictionary (Sheidlower 34). Sheidlower points out that the criterion should rather be the number and range of citations than the newness of the word (34